Buddhism and Spirituality Explained

Buddhism, also known as Buddha-dharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and philosophy based on teachings attributed to the Buddha, a śramaṇa and religious teacher who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE. It arose in the eastern Gangetic plain as a śramaṇa movement in the 5th century BCE, and gradually spread throughout much of Asia. It is the world's fourth-largest religion, with about 320 million followers, known as Buddhists, who comprise 4.1% of the global population.

The terms Buddhadharma and Bauddhadharma come from Sanskrit: बुद्ध धर्म and बौद्ध धर्म respectively ("doctrine of the Enlightened One" and "doctrine of Buddhists"). Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Sakyan-s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. The Buddha ("the Awakened One") was a Śramaṇa who lived in South Asia c. 6th or 5th century BCE. Details of the Buddha's life are mentioned in many Early Buddhist Texts but are inconsistent.

Early texts have the Buddha's family name as "Gautama" (Pali: Gotama), while some texts give Siddhartha as his surname. Various details about the Buddha's background are contested in modern scholarship. Finding these teachings to be insufficient to attain his goal, he turned to the practice of severe asceticism, which included a strict fasting regime and various forms of breath control. This too fell short of attaining his goal, and then he turned to the meditative practice of dhyana. The term "Buddhism" is an occidental neologism, commonly (and "rather roughly" according to Donald S. Lopez Jr.) used for the religion or philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha.

Core Teachings

According to tradition, the Buddha instructed his followers in a path of cultivation that leads to awakening and full liberation from dukkha (lit. 'suffering'; 'unease', 'unsatisfactoriness') by attaining nirvana, the 'blowing out' (extinguishing) of the passions. He regarded this path as a Middle Way between extreme asceticism and sensory indulgence, and also between the extremes of eternalism and nihilism. Teaching that dukkha arises alongside attachment or clinging, the Buddha advised meditation practices and ethical precepts rooted in non-harming.

Widely observed teachings include the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the doctrines of dependent origination, karma, and the three marks of existence. The Buddhist canon is vast, with philosophical traditions and many different textual collections in different languages (such as Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, and Chinese). Buddhist schools vary in their interpretation of the paths to liberation (mārga, "path") as well as the relative importance and "canonicity" assigned to various Buddhist texts, and their specific teachings and practices.

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The Three Jewels

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking of the "Three Refuges", also called the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: triratna, Pali: tiratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice. This practice may have been influenced by the Brahmanical motif of the triple refuge, found in the Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 and Chandogya Upanishad 2.22.3-4. Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama.

The second of the three jewels is "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), which in Buddhism refers to the Buddha's teaching, which includes all of the main ideas outlined above. While this teaching reflects the true nature of reality, it is not a belief to be clung to, but a pragmatic teaching to be put into practice. It is likened to a raft which is "for crossing over" (to nirvana) not for holding on to. It also refers to the universal law and cosmic order which that teaching both reveals and relies upon. It is an everlasting principle which applies to all beings and worlds.

The Sangha is seen as important because they preserve and pass down Buddha Dharma. As Gethin states "the Sangha lives the teaching, preserves the teaching as Scriptures and teaches the wider community. Without the Sangha there is no Buddhism." The Sangha also acts as a "field of merit" for laypersons, allowing them to make spiritual merit or goodness by donating to the Sangha and supporting them. There is also a separate definition of Sangha, referring to those who have attained any stage of awakening, whether or not they are monastics. This sangha is called the āryasaṅgha "noble Sangha".

The Four Noble Truths

The Buddha taught about the Four Noble Truths. The first truth is called “suffering (dukkha),” which teaches that everyone in life is suffering in some way. The second truth is the “origin of suffering (samudāya).” This states that all suffering comes from desire (tanhā). The third truth is the “cessation of suffering (nirodha),” and it says that it is possible to stop suffering and achieve enlightenment. The fourth truth, the “path to the cessation of suffering (magga)” is about the Middle Way and the steps to achieve enlightenment.

The Noble Eightfold Path

One of the most important and widely used presentations among the various Buddhist schools is The Noble Eightfold Path, or "Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones" (Skt. 'āryāṣṭāṅgamārga'). In various suttas which present the graduated path taught by the Buddha, such as the Samaññaphala Sutta and the Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta, the first step on the path is hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma.

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1. Right Understanding
2. Right Thought
3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration

Karma and Rebirth

Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death. In Buddhist thought, this rebirth does not involve a soul or any fixed substance. In Buddhism, karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") drives saṃsāra-the endless cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Buddhists believe in a wheel of rebirth into different bodies. This is connected to “karma,” which refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in their present or past lives can impact their future.

Pratityasamutpada, also called "dependent arising, or dependent origination", is the Buddhist theory to explain the nature and relations of being, becoming, existence and ultimate reality. Buddhism applies the theory of dependent arising to explain origination of endless cycles of dukkha and rebirth, through Twelve Nidānas or "twelve links". A related doctrine in Buddhism is that of anattā (Pali) or anātman (Sanskrit). "Emptiness" or "voidness" (Skt: Śūnyatā, Pali: Suññatā), is a related concept with many different interpretations throughout the various Buddhisms.

Branches of Buddhism

Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognised by scholars: Theravāda (lit. 'School of the Elders') and Mahāyāna (lit. 'Great Vehicle'). The Theravada tradition emphasises the attainment of nirvāṇa (lit. 'extinguishing') as a means of transcending the individual self and ending the cycle of death and rebirth (saṃsāra), while the Mahayana tradition emphasises the Bodhisattva ideal, in which one works for the liberation of all sentient beings.

The Mahāyāna branch, which includes the traditions of Tiantai, Chan, Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren and Tendai, is the largest branch of Buddhism, being predominantly practised in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. The second-largest branch, Theravada, is followed mainly in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. Tibetan Buddhism, a form of Vajrayāna, is practised in the Himalayan states as well as in Mongolia and Russian Kalmykia and Tuva. Japanese Shingon also preserves the Vajrayana tradition as transmitted to China.

There are three main schools of Buddhism: Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana. Mahayana Buddhism is common in China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan and Tibet. It emphasizes the role models of bodhisattvas (beings that have achieved enlightenment but return to teach humans). Theravada Buddhism is common in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand. It emphasizes a monastic lifestyle and meditation as the way to enlightenment. Vajrayana is the major school of Buddhism in the region of Tibet as well as in Nepal and Mongolia. It offers followers a faster path to enlightenment than Mahayana or Theravada, because a person can achieve enlightenment in one lifetime through specific rituals.

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While all varieties of Buddhism revere "Buddha" and "buddhahood", they have different views on what these are. In Theravada Buddhism, a Buddha is someone who has become awake through their own efforts and insight. Mahāyāna Buddhism meanwhile, has a vastly expanded cosmology, with various Buddhas and other holy beings (aryas) residing in different realms.

Practices

An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (madhyamapratipad). In the early texts, numerous different sequences of the gradual path can be found. However, they generally share basic practices such as sila (ethics), samadhi (meditation, dhyana) and prajña (wisdom), which are known as the three trainings. An important additional practice is a kind and compassionate attitude toward every living being and the world. Devotion is also important in some Buddhist traditions, and in the Tibetan traditions visualisations of deities and mandalas are important. The value of textual study is regarded differently in the various Buddhist traditions.

Most forms of Buddhism consider saddhā (Sanskrit: śraddhā, 'trustful confidence' or 'faith'), as a key quality on the path that prepares one for meditative insights. Furthermore, the related quality of devotion (Sanskrit: bhakti; Pali: bhatti) is an important part of the path of most Buddhists, since it supports wholesome qualities like faith and peace of mind. Buddhist devotional and liturgical practices encompass a wide range of forms oriented toward honoring the Buddha, cultivating wholesome mental states, and structuring communal religious life.

As in Hinduism, pūjās typically involves offerings of flowers, incense, lamps, food, or water on a Buddhist altar along with certain recitations and physical acts like bowing. Such rites are understood to generate merit, cultivate wholesome states of mind (such as a state of refuge) and support contemplation. In formal temple settings, worship often follows complex liturgies, including the taking of refuge, precepts and vows, whereas more informal contexts may integrate simpler forms of homage and recitation. Buddhist devotional practices are usually focused on some object, image or location that is seen as holy or spiritually influential.

Chanting practices constitute a major component of Buddhist devotion common to all Buddhist traditions going back to ancient India where chanting aided in the memorisation of orally transmitted teachings. A common practice is to chant or recite Buddhist sutras. Other chants are shorter formulas, mantras or dharanis. Among the most popular chants in Buddhism are those associated with recollection of the Buddha and refuge. In East Asian Buddhism this includes the widely popular nianfo formula which is devoted to Amitābha Buddha and is central to Pure Land Buddhism. In Himalayan Buddhism, the Mani mantra is a similarly popular chant among lay and ordained Buddhists alike. A common method of chanting is to use rosaries called malas to count repetitions.

One of the most basic forms of ethics in Buddhism is the taking of "precepts". The five precepts are seen as a basic training applicable to all Buddhists.

• "I undertake the training-precept (sikkha-padam) to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." This includes ordering or causing someone else to kill.
• "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning sense-pleasures." This generally refers to adultery, as well as rape and incest. It also applies to sex with those who are legally under the protection of a guardian.
• "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." According to Harvey, intoxication is seen as a way to mask rather than face the sufferings of life.

Vinaya is the specific code of conduct for a sangha of monks or nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 offences including 75 rules of decorum for monks, along with penalties for transgression, in the Theravadin tradition. The precise content of the Vinaya Pitaka (scriptures on the Vinaya) differs in different schools and tradition, and different monasteries set their own standards on its implementation.

Another important practice taught by the Buddha is the restraint of the senses (indriyasamvara). In the various graduated paths, this is usually presented as a practice which is taught prior to formal sitting meditation, and which supports meditation by weakening sense desires that are a hindrance to meditation. According to Anālayo, sense restraint is when one "guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent". This is not an avoidance of sense impression, but a kind of mindful attention towards the sense impressions which does not dwell on their main features or signs (nimitta).

A related Buddhist virtue and practice is renunciation, or the intent for desirelessness (nekkhamma). Generally, renunciation is the giving up of actions and desires that are seen as unwholesome on the path, such as lust for sensuality and worldly things. Renunciation can be cultivated in different ways. The practice of giving for example, is one form of cultivating renunciation. One way of cultivating renunciation taught by the Buddha is the contemplation (anupassana) of the "dangers" (or "negative consequences") of sensual pleasure (kāmānaṃ ādīnava). Another related practice to renunciation and sense restraint taught by the Buddha is "restraint in eating" or moderation with food, which for monks generally means not eating after noon.

The training of the faculty called "mindfulness" (Pali: sati, Sanskrit: smṛti, literally meaning "recollection, remembering") is central in Buddhism. According to Analayo, mindfulness is a full awareness of the present moment which enhances and strengthens memory. The Indian Buddhist philosopher Asanga defined mindfulness thus: "It is non-forgetting by the mind with regard to the object experienced.

A wide range of meditation practices has developed in the Buddhist traditions, but "meditation" primarily refers to the attainment of samādhi and the practice of dhyāna (Pali: jhāna). Samādhi is a calm, undistracted, unified and concentrated state of awareness. It is defined by Asanga as "one-pointedness of mind on the object to be investigated.

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